Coverage of Asia Pacific Summit by Three NATIONAL DAILIES – A Study

While analyzing the coverage of Asia Pacific Summit that was held at Hotel Hyatt Regency from Dec 1 to Dec 3, I found out a considerable amount of difference in the coverage of the event by three national dailies. Among them, I have analyzed two English-language dailies – The Kathmandu Post and The Republica and one Nepali-language daily –  Annapurna Post.

ANNAPURNA POST

Annapurna Post can be seen criticizing the actions of the government through many articles published on these three days. On November 30, it also published an editorial in which the issue of Universal Peace Federation’s Asia Pacific Summit was raised. The editorial of that day introduces the objectives and aims of the Universal Peace Federation as a South-Korean NGO propagating Christian religion and later on talks about how much budget the government has spent on supporting or co-hosting this summit. No other editorials were there regarding this topic on other days. Annapurna Post seems to be less interested in the Summit and hasn’t given the Summit much importance in relation to other publications.

THE REPUBLICA

The Republica seems to have placed a great deal of importance on the coverage of the Summit. Back-to-back front-page coverage can be seen during and after the summit. On November 30, a full-page welcome message along with the picture of Dr Hak Ja Han Moon, the founder of Universal Peace Federation was printed on the third page. On December 1, a long but small space was there for the same welcome message by two different companies.

THE KATHMANDU POST

TKP has mostly covered viewpoints which have criticized the government for organizing The Asia Pacific Summit. An editorial was dedicated to this issue on November 30 which highlighted why it was wrong of the government to support and place a great deal of importance in this event. Almost all of the news articles related to Asia Pacific Summit seem to put the word ‘inter-religious’ in double inverted commas while describing South-Korea based “inter-religious” Universal Peace Federation as an organization.

 

 

Journalistic Code of Conduct of South Africa

The Press Council of South Africa and the Interactive Advertising Bureau South Africa adopts the following Code for the Media:

PREAMBLE:

In the preamble, it is described that Section 16 of the Bill of Rights provides that everyone in South Africa has the right to freedom of expression, which includes freedom of the press and other media, freedom to receive and impart information or ideas, freedom of artistic creativity, and academic freedom and freedom of scientific research but the right does not extend to in the case of incitement of violence, propaganda or war, advocacy of hatred in many ways, etc.

Chapter 1 in this Code of Conduct is about Media Generated Content and Activities and Chapter 2 is about the User Generated Content.

Chapter 1 has several topics such as:

GATHERING AND REPORTING OF NEWS 

• The gathering of the news must be truthful, accurate, fair
• The news presented should be Balanced – without distortion, exaggeration, material omissions or summarization
• The news should be obtained legally
• The personal information of sources must not be compromised.
• If a news item is based on limited information, it should be clearly stated so in the news article and if further developments arise, the reporter should do a follow-up story based on the additional information.
• The journalists should make amends for presenting inaccurate information.
• An online article should also be amended for factual accuracy
• No journalists should be plagiarizing any information or content on the news.
• If a person complaints against the article being defamatory or embarrassing, journalists should take care of the situation and remove the article or not remove it and inform the person who reported it as to why they didn’t remove it.

INDEPENDENCE AND CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

• No commercial, political and other non-professional interests should influence reporting.
• A journalist should not accept bribe, gift or benefit to influence coverage.
• A journalist should indicate when an outside organization has contributed to the cost of newsgathering.
• Editorial material should be independent and unbiased.

PRIVACY, DIGNITY AND REPUTATION

• A great amount of care and consideration should be placed in a person’s individual privacy.
• In protection of Privacy, Dignity and Reputation, special weight must be given to South African cultures and customs concerning privacy and dignity of people who are bereaved, those who have passed away, regarding children, aged, physically and mentally disabled.
• Dignity and reputation of an individual must be overridden only in following conditions – True Facts are being reported, the reportage amounts to a fair report of court proceedings, parliamentary proceedings, etc and if the information being presented is based on principles of the journalistic code of conduct and is in public interest.
• Rape survivors, survivors of sexual violence, children (legal guardian or the child itself – considering the evolving capacity of the child) must not be named without their consent.
• HIV/AIDS status of people should not be disclosed without their consent. If it is a child, their legal guardian should be consulted and only upon their approval, they can be named or children themselves can be asked considering the evolving capacity of the child.

PROTECTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION

• A journalist should take steps to ensure that the personal information under their control is protected.
• They should ensure that the personal information gathered is accurate, complete and up-to-date.
• If anyone requests to correct the personal information – a journalist should verify the accuracy and make amends if necessary.
• They should not reveal a person’s crucial information such as an address. It might lead to the intrusion on the privacy and safety, so only disclose sufficient personal information to identify the person reported in the news.

DISCRIMINATION AND HATE SPEECH

• A journalist should avoid discriminatory or denigratory references to the person’s race, sex, religion, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, disability, belief, culture, except when it is strictly relevant and in public interest to do so.
• Media has right and duty to report and comment on all matters of legitimate public interest. But that right should be balanced against the obligation of not publishing materials that amounts to propaganda for war, incitement of violence, hatred based on race, ethnicity, etc.

ADVOCACY

• Journalists are justified in strongly advocating their own views on controversial topics, provided that they treat their constituencies fairly by:
  • Making fact and opinion clearly distinguishable;
  • Not misrepresenting or suppressing relevant facts; and
  • Not distorting the facts.

PROTECTED COMMENTS

• The media shall be entitled to comment or criticize any actions or events of public interest.
• Comment or criticism is protected even if extreme, unjust, unbalanced, exaggerated or prejudiced, as long as it :
  • Expresses an honestly-held opinion;
  • Is without malice;
  • Is on a matter of public interest;
  • Has taken fair account of all material facts that are substantially true; and
  • Is presented in such a matter that it appears clearly to be a comment.

CHILDREN

• The Bill of Rights tells us that a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child. Applying the spirit of this section, the media must:
  • Exercise care when reporting.
  • In a chance where the coverage might harm the child, he/she must not be interviewed, photographed or identified without the consent of the legal guardian and the child himself or herself considering the evolving capacity of the child.
• A media or journalist must not publish child pornography
• They should not identify the victim of abuse, exploitation or who have been charged with or convicted of a crime without the consent of legal guardian or child himself or herself considering the evolving capacity of the child.

VIOLENCE, GRAPHIC CONTENT

• Due care and responsibility should be taken while presenting brutality, violence and suffering. Material presented, without any context should not sanction or promote or glamorize violence or unlawful act, discrimination.
• A journalist should avoid the content with violence or explicit sex unless it is in the public interest.

HEADLINES, POSTERS, PICTURES AND CAPTIONS

• It should give reasonable reflection to the content in the picture.
• Posters shall not mislead the public.
• Pictures or A/V content shall not misrepresent or mislead nor be manipulated to do so.

CONFIDENTIAL AND ANONYMOUS SOURCES

• Media shall –
  • Protect confidential sources
  • Avoid the use of anonymous sources

PAYMENT FOR INFORMATION

• Media should avoid shady journalism, in which they pay the source to gain information, particularly criminals, except it is in public interest.

 

CHAPTER 2 – USER GENERATED CONTENT

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

• This section applies where a complaint is brought against a media in respect of comments and content posted by users on all platforms it controls and on which it distributes its content.
• A media is not obliged to moderate all UGC in advance.
• All media must have UGC Policy
• UGC Policy of the media must be consistent with the constitution of South Africa.
• UGC Policy must be publicly available.
• Terms and Conditions should be given to users who wish to post comments.
• It should set out clearly the content which shall be prohibited.
• Media should place a notice on the platforms with the aim to discourage the posting of prohibited content.
• The public should be informed that UGC is posted directly by users and it does not reflect the views of the media.
• Users shall be encouraged to report content which they believe violates the provisions of Media’s UGC Policy
• Online forums directed at children and the young should be monitored particularly carefully.

PROHIBITED CONTENT

• Prohibited content is the content which is prohibited on a Media’s UGC Policy.
• Also, content which contains the following:
  • Propaganda for war;
  • Incitement to imminent violence;
  • Advocacy of hatred that is based on religion, race, ethnicity

DEFENCE IN RELATION TO USER-GENERATED CONTENT

• It is a defence in relation to any complaint brought to the press council regarding UGC, for the member to show that it did not itself author or edit the content complaint of. The defence will not apply in the following circumstances:
• The complainant sent a written notice to the member in relation to the content concerned, and
• The media failed to remove the content in accordance with clause 15.4 below.

The written notice mention above must:

• be sent via email or letter to the particular address stipulated by the member;
• Identify the content concerned and specify where on the website the statement was posted; and
• Must explain why the content concerned is prohibited either in terms of a media’s UGC Policy.

Upon the receipt of a written notice complaining about UGC the member must:

• Remove the UGC from the platform as soon as operationally possible and notify the complainant that it has done so; or
• Decide not to remove the UGC and notify the complainant of this procedure.

When a media decides not to remove the UGC:

• The complainant may complain to the Ombud in terms of Complaint Procedure
• It will be treated as if the UGC has been posted by media itself and the media will be liable for such content if it is shown to be prohibited in terms of clause 14.

 

At last, as a summary, the Journalistic Code of Conduct of South Africa has pretty same elements that can be found in the Code of Conduct of other countries. The most unique thing it has which other countries might not have is, the mention of protecting the privacy of people with HIV/AIDS as South Africa still remains the country with the highest number of people with HIV/AIDS (7.1 million people are living with HIV) and the societal taboo still remains.

REFERENCE –

The Journalistic Code of Conduct of South Africa (the document) was retrieved from https://presscouncil.org.za/

Mimamsa and Vedanta Ethics

MIMAMSA PHILOSOPHY (A REVIEW)

The word Mimamsa denotes curiosity or inquisitiveness. In Sanskrit, it is called Jijnasa. Mimamsa is also known to be Veda Vakya Bichar (to think about sentences of the Veda). Jaimini was the compiler and promoter of Mimamsa philosophy. Mimamsa Darshana consists of 12 chapters and 60 Padas. The Darshana starts from the sentence “अथातो धर्मजिज्ञासा” which translates into English as ‘the inquiry into the nature of Dharma’.

Dharma is a very vast topic, that is why Mimamsa philosophy has 12 chapters while trying to explain what Dharma is. The 12 subjects in the 12 chapters of Mimamsa are – Dharma-jigyasa, Karma-bhedh, Sheshatwa, Prayoj-Prayojak baav, Karmaharuma Kram, Adhikaar, Samanya tatha Bishesh Atidesh, Uha, Baadh, Tantra tatha Aawap.

MIMAMSA ETHICS

Mimamsa Sutras in the Mimamsa philosophy starts by questioning the nature of Dharma. The Veda is the final and supreme authority for both Purva and Uttara Mimamsas. That is why the modern Hindu law is very much influenced by the Mimamsa system. The Mimamsa has a well-developed and interesting account of how ethics and human character are interrelated. Though Manusmriti is the most often quoted ‘source book’ of Hindu ethics, Mimamsa is crucial in this regard because Hindu ethics is related with the Dharma and ‘the avowed aim of the Purva Mimamsa is to examine the nature of Dharma’. (Adhikary, 2007)

The central idea of Dharma is that a human being is a creature of the evolutionary process and is different from all other species in the world. It has the ability to distinguish right from wrong, good from bad. Human beings can exercise its will to decide what is good and what is bad for themselves and others. Thus they are different from other species and they possess moral sense.

Chodana is an injunction or lakshana or a sign of Dharma. According to Sabara, bhasyakaar of Mimamsa philosophy, chodana denotes utterances which impel men to act. It also has another meaning – inspiration from within. So to be ethical, we must abide by the ‘chodana’ of the Vedas.

Mimamsa ethics tells us that the life of human beings must be governed by the rules set out in the Vedas. The Vedas prescribe good actions. In the Vedic period, following Rita which means divine law was considered ethical. Rita is the physical order of the universe. Opposite of Rita is An-Rita, which means violation of the divine law. Hinduism also developed from the ancient Vedic religion and the concept of Rita led us to the doctrines of dharma and karma.

The Dharma Mimamsa philosophy talks about is always associated with Karma. Karma means ‘actions’. According to the theory of Karma, every action produces its inevitable ‘fruit’ or ‘fal’. Good actions produce good fruit and evil actions produce evil fruit.

Hindu Eastern philosophers often connect ethics with Karma and Dharma. Which means, the nature of one’s actions determines his/her future. An ideal ethical Hindu person is supposed to abide by the universal law of Dharma or Karma.

VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY (A REVIEW)

The literal meaning of Vedanta is the end of the Vedas. Vedanta philosophy is concerned with the Jnana Kanda or the Vedic knowledge part called Upanishads which are the last literary products of the Vedic period.

Vedanta philosophy is concerned with three categories – the Brahman (ultimate metaphysical reality also known as Atman, Jivatman – the individual self and Prakriti – the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter.

Thus Vedanta is the search for self-knowledge as well as the search for God. According to Vedanta, god is infinite existence, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss. God dwells within our hearts as the divine self or the atman.

According to Vedanta darshana, the goal of our life is to realize and to manifest our own divinity. This divinity is our real nature. We move towards this goal as we grow with knowledge and life experiences.

There are four paths we can follow to achieve the goal of understanding our own divine nature:

1)  Bhakti Yoga

2)  Gyan Yoga

3)  Karma Yoga

4)  Raj Yoga

VEDANTA ETHICS

Whatever that brings us closer to our innate divinity, that is the Brahman, is what is called ethical. Whatever action that obstructs us from going closer to our innate divinity is not considered ethical. The Vedanta ethics is dependent on the metaphysics of Vedanta philosophy. According to Vedanta metaphysics, the Brahman is the sole reality and individuals are just modifications of it. It teaches us to see the absolute oneness of things.

“In a Brahmana endowed with wisdom and humility, in a cow, in an elephant, as also in a dog and a dog eater, the wise see the same” This metaphysical monism requires us to look upon all creation as one.

Metaphysics of Vedanta philosophy always teaches us the ethics of love and brotherhood. It tells us that every other individual is to be seen as your equal.

Vedanta philosophy requires us to respect human dignity and demands the recognition of man as man. It tells us that morality and ego prevent us from realizing the truth. All moral codes are based upon placing others above ourselves and in other words, being unselfish. Being good and doing good to others is universal and reflects the oneness of life.

 

Works cited:

Adhikary, Nirmala Mani. “Mimamsa-Philosophy and Mass Media Ethics” BODHI An Interdisciplinary Journal. Dhulikhel: Department of Languages and Mass Communication, 2007.

ETHICS: Definition, Scope, Nature and Objectives

Discuss the meaning and definitions of Ethics. Also, show your acquaintance with the scope and nature of ethics. Then, elaborate the objective of ethics with suitable examples. 

Ethics is mainly known as the principle of moral conduct that makes a distinction between good and bad/ evil, right and wrong, virtue and non-virtue. The word ethics is derived from a Greek word ‘ethos’ meaning character. It is a branch of knowledge that governs right and wrong conducts and behaviours of an individual, profession, group or organization. It is a core of the professional and personal lives of people. Different scholars have defined ethics differently. However different their definitions might be, ethics is always concerned with morality and right vs wrong and good vs evil. It is applied universally. There is also ethics in professions such as journalism, advertising, education, medicine, etc.

Karen L. Rich defines ethics as a systematic approach to understanding, analyzing, and distinguishing matters of right and wrong, good and bad, and admirable and deplorable as they relate to the well-being of and the relationships among sentient beings.

As per paper published by Science Direct – “Ethics is the most important and functioning branch of philosophy in today. In general, ethics is moral philosophy. The term ethics is derived from Greek term Ethos which means custom, character. It is related to our values and virtues. Therefore, our actions and our experiences in everyday life are the subjects of ethics. We have the capacity to think about our choices, so we are responsible for all our decisions and actions.”

There are 3 different scopes of ethics. They are:

1. Meta-Ethics
2. Normative Ethics
3. Applied Ethics

1. Meta-Ethics: Meta-ethics comprises the area of situational ethics and deals with logical questions like ‘What do we mean by ‘freedom’ and ‘determinism’ etc. It delves into the nature of ethical properties, attitudes and judgements. For example, a media critic’s description of a TV series as ‘good drama’ does not necessarily denote that the program is morally sound. It is the function of metaethics to define such vague concepts in ethical terms. Some of the theories of Meta-Ethics are Naturalism, Non-Naturalism, Emotivism and Prescriptivism.

2. Normative Ethics: Normative ethics deals with standards or norms by which we can judge human actions to be right or wrong. It deals with the criteria of what is morally right or wrong. For example, if someone murders a person, everyone will agree that it is wrong. The question is: Why is it wrong to murder someone? There are a lot of different answers we could give, but if we want to specify a principle that stated why its wrong, the answer might be: Murder is wrong because when we kill someone, we violate their right to live. Another perspective might be – To inflict unnecessary suffering on the person being murdered or their family is wrong, that’s why to kill a person is wrong. There are three elements emphasized by normative ethics:

• The person who performs the act (the agent)
• The act
• The consequences of the act

3. Applied Ethics: Applied ethics is the problem-solving branch of moral philosophy. It uses the insights derived from metaethics and the general principles and rules of normative ethics in addressing specific ethical issues and cases in a professional, disciplinary or practical field. Applied ethics is the vital link between theory and practice, the real test of ethical decision-making. Applied ethics often requires not only theoretical analysis but also practical and feasible solutions.

Some of the key areas of applied ethics are:

• Decision Ethics
• Professional Ethics
• Clinical Ethics
• Business Ethics
• Organizational Ethics
• Social Ethics

Applied ethics takes into consideration issues such as abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment, drug decriminalization, gay marriage, etc.

Nature of Ethics

• Scientific Nature: Ethics is a normative science which determines norms, moral values in a person and an individual’s character. It is a systematic explanation of what is right and what is wrong.
• Not Art: Ethics is not art as art deals with the acquisition of skill to produce objects, while morality deals with motive, intention, purpose and choice which are considered right or wrong in the light of goodness. (web)
• Variable Nature: Ethics is not static. It is not always the same. Human beings change and the morality and ethical perspective in them also changes.
• Exclusively for Human Beings: Ethics can only be applied to human beings as we are the ones who have the capacity for moral judgement. We cannot expect ethical behaviour from animals, as they are not as intelligent as human beings are so ethics is exclusively for human beings.

Objectives of Ethics

Ethical objectives are based on the following factors:

• Objectivity
• Impartiality
• Accuracy
• Public Accountability
• Fairness
• Truthfulness

The objectives of ethics are to study and assess human behaviour. It is also to establish principles and moral standards of behaviour. Ethics is not compulsory in a person’s life and it is not forced upon anyone but being ethical is one step forward towards being a good person.

REFERENCES:

INTRODUCTION TO NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://m.kkhsou.in/EBIDYA/PHILO/MODIFY_nature_ethics.html on September 2, 2018

Adhikary, N. M. (2006). Studying Mass Media Ethics. Kathmandu: Prashanti Pustsk Bhandar.

APPLIED ETHICS. (n.d.). Retrieved from                                              http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Applied_ethics

My Germany Travel Log

Even after stepping in Bremen, one of the most ancient cities of Germany, I couldn’t believe that I was in Europe! THE EUROPE! I know we all have a dream of visiting a foreign land. I also had and I wanted my first abroad trip to be in Europe, which recently became true about a month ago. We (me and my classmates – 10 of us) were taken to Germany as a part of a student exchange program with Jade University in Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

Wilhelmshaven is a small town in Northern Germany. It is a coastal town which is situated right on the laps of North Sea (Nord See – as Germans call it). It is located in the state of Lower Saxony in Germany. It has its name Wilhelmshaven because the literal meaning of Wilhelmshaven is Wilhelm’s Harbor. (Wilhelm/William I^st – King of Prussia in 1869) Wilhelmshaven became an important harbor at the end of the last century. It is said to be Germany’s only deep-water port and the largest naval base.

Germans are widely known for their punctuality. In Germany, people start wondering what happened as soon as a person is ten minutes late. Everything you see is so well managed there. The traffic rules, roads, buildings, housings, train stations, etc. Mostly all the Germans wait for the traffic lights to turn green even if there is no vehicle around on the street. Something pretty funny occurred when we tried to cross the streets in Germany. We Nepalese have this habit of letting the vehicle go first and then only crossing the street.  So in Germany, both of us – we and the driver stopped and were waiting to let each other go on a zebra crossing until our German friend told us to hurry up.

German Summer is a real challenge for the first timers! When we reached Germany on the night of 12^th August, although we were wearing enough clothes, we were shivering. The wind blowing was so harsh and cold. You don’t know when it will start raining, so a warm pullover and an umbrella is a must when you travel around Germany in summer.

This came pretty much as a surprising thing, but in Germany, there is a right to one’s own image and picture. That means that everyone can decide if someone is allowed to take pictures of them. It’s usual to ask someone if you want to take pictures of him/her. According to my experience, it is even more wrong if you click a picture of a baby without asking his/her parent. I was warned by a parent when I clicked a picture of a young baby girl on the streets of Bremen without asking the parent.

BREMEN

The first thing that took me off in Bremen was the architecture. For those who have seen more of Europe, it could seem less unique, but it astonished me to a great extent. Whenever I walked on the streets of Bremen, it felt like I was teleported back to 15^th century – The Renaissance period. The European architecture of the city center of Bremen was nothing less than brilliant. Learning about the German empire, exploring the city and walking around the streets where once the rulers strolled gave me the best feeling. While we were in Bremen, a rally was being organized by the SPD (Social Democratic Party) of Germany for Martin Schulz, who was a possible candidate for German chancellor this year from SPD. (Elections were held in September)

Bremen

Bremen’s Popular Fairytale

There is this famous tale in Bremen about the town musicians. Once upon a time, there were four animals: a donkey, a hound, a cat, and a cock. The donkey convinced the others to join together on a tour to Bremen to be the town musicians. They became hungry on the way and came upon the house of robbers where the robbers were having a delicious meal together. The four animals, to chase the robbers away, climbed on top of each other and started singing. The robbers became scared and left the house after which the house became the permanent property of the musicians. But they never made it to Bremen. This fairytale is so famous in Germany that the sculpture of four animals on top of each other was made in 1951 near the town square in Bremen.

Bremen’s Fairytale Sculpture

Along with the sculpture of Town Musicians, the major point of interest includes the statue of Knight Roland, which symbolizes freedom and independence. There are also two major buildings in the town square in Bremen, which are The Town Hall and St. Peters Cathedral. One of the things that took me off was the decoration inside the town hall which was incredibly baroque. It is the only major European style building that remained intact even during the World War period and is also listed in UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Then there was Bottcherstrasse (translated into English as Bottcher street), which had a fantastic entrance. It’s said that it was once an original market street, a very tight narrow street running from main square to the Weser river bank. It also has trendiest cafes and a special building Carillon called the Glockenspiel House. Near the roof, the Carillon has a rotating panel which has a woodcarving of famous personalities around the world. It rotates and chimes by playing a very elaborate melody three times a day. Bottcherstrasse also had a strangely designed house which used to be the real house of merchants years ago. Just at the end of Bottcherstrasse, you see a big house standing which is termed as the house of Robinson Cruise. In the novel ‘The Adventures of Robinson Cruise’, the opening sentence goes as, “I was born in the year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at Hull.”

The most favorite part of my visit in Bremen was the Schnoor district in Bremen. Schnoor had very narrow streets and old medieval style buildings. There were cafes and restaurants and also souvenir shops for tourists. It gave you a perfect feel of Europe.

Another interesting thing is that you can never get lost in Bremen if you are a tourist visiting the city center for the first time. There are silver nails driven into the ground all over the town. The nails will guide a person around Bremen and one can travel or sight-see without getting lost.

How can one not talk about beer while talking about Germany? Becks is a famous brand of beer that is brewed in Germany. While walking on the banks of Weser river after you finish walking Bottcherstrasse, you see Becks Brewery just on the opposite bank. We did not visit the brewery but definitely tasted the beer. Another famous local beer was Jever, which was brewed in a town named Jever near Wilhelmshaven. There is a saying that beer is cheaper in Germany than water. I don’t know whether it’s true or not, but I think it all depends upon where you buy it.

GERMAN PEOPLE

You can expect many types of people in Germany. Everyone is not friendly and you cannot always count on help if you don’t know German. I had my very first experience with a German girl the day after we arrived. When I knocked the hotel door of my friend at 7 AM in the morning after we’d arrived, the girl stormed outside of her own room and angrily scolded me. She told me that it’s still 7 AM and that she’s sleeping. She asked me not to knock and let her sleep. I was quite surprised.

On the other hand, some people were kind enough to print the location via their computer when we asked them and give it to us even if they didn’t understand English.

We had a granny at our hotel who served us breakfast daily. She was the sweetest person I met on Germany. She didn’t speak English, but loved us like her own children. When I told her she reminds me of my own grandmother back home, she was overjoyed and hugged me. She loved ‘brown skin’ of us Nepalese and whenever we wore shorts or skirts, she would point at our legs and say ‘Brown skin! Very beautiful!’

A picture of us with Granny (second from right)

However, the town we stayed in – Wilhelmshaven, had a lot of refugees especially from Syria. Germany is the country which has accepted the asylum of more refugees than any other country in the world.

TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Germans are way ahead of us in the matter of technology and media. During our stay, we visited two radio stations (Radio Bremen and Radio Jade), both of them Public Service Broadcasters. It’s amazing how PSB’s function without any advertising revenues just for the sake of people. They only collect a certain amount of fee from every household. Radio Bremen although has ‘radio’ in its name, it also operates a TV channel and has its presence on the Internet.

Whereas in the Nepali scenario, when we look at Radio Nepal and NTV, they technically are PSBs, but a major factor that doesn’t allow these two media channels to become a PSB is government interference. Most of the Nepalese view these two channels as the mouthpiece of government.

Sadharanikaran Model of Communication and Shanon and Weavers Model of Communication: A Comparative Analysis

Background

It is really important to have comparative understanding of different models of communication field because it will help us to understand the models effectively. Gaining knowledge would never have been easier if it weren’t for comparing. By comparing two models, we get to know the depth of the models and what are the similarities and differences between them.

Many flaws have been identified in the 1949 Shanon and Weavers communication model, therefore many other communication theories have been put forward as alternatives that fill in the blanks that the Shanon and Weaver model has. In the eastern perspective, Sadharanikaran model of communication is the first of its types and it is these models that shall be focused on this report, comparing the differences between them, analyzing their relative strengths and weaknesses.

MODEL A: Sadharanikaran Model of Communication

Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC), was proposed by Dr. Nirmala Mani Adhikari on 2003. It is a systematic representation of communication process from a Hindu perspective. It illustrates how the communication parties interact in a system for the attainment of commonness or oneness. Sahridayata and Sahridayas are the core concepts upon which the meaning of sadharanikaran resides. The sender and receiver attain sahridayata or become sahridayas only when they accomplish the process of sadharanikaran. Thus, sadharanikaran is the attainment of sahridayata by communication process.

Sadharanikaran is rooted in Natyashastra of Bharata. Scholars widely believe that Bhattanayaka introduced the concept of sadharanikaran. He is credited for the use of the term in his commentary on Natyashastra to explain the concept of rasa. Sadharanikaran word is derived from the Sanskrit word sadharan; which means ‘commonality’ or ‘simplification’ in English. The true essence of sadharanikaran is to achieve commonness or oneness among the people. Sadharanikaran model is the first ever model of communication in diagrammatic form proposed from the East.

Sadharanikaran model comprises of the following elements:

1. Sahridayas (Preshaka, i.e. sender and Prapaka, i.e. receiver)
2. Bhava (Moods or emotions)
3. Abhivyanjana (Expression or encoding)
4. Sandesh (Message or information)
5. Sarani (Channel)
6. Rasaswadana (Firstly receiving, decoding and interpreting the message and finally achieving the rasa)
7. Doshas (Noises)
8. Sandarbha (Context)
9. Pratikriya (Process of feedback)

Sahridayas are the people with a capacity to send and receive messages. They are the parties engaged in communication, and capable of identifying each other as sender and receiver of the process. If communication Is taken as a step-by-step process, which is just for the sake of easy understanding, the sahridaya-preshaka (sender), who has the bhavas (moods or emotions or thoughts) in mind, is the initiator of the process. It is the sahridaya-prapaka (receiver) with whom the bhavas are to be shared. He or she has to pass the process of rasaswadana. Abhivyanjana refers to the activities that a source goes to translate bhavas into a form that may be perceived by the senses. It can be understood as expression or encoding in English. Simplification is the essential dimension here. In the communication process; the complex concepts and ideas are simplified by the speaker(source) with illustrations and idioms appropriate for the understanding of the listener (receiver of the message).

With the completion of the process of abhivyanjana, bhavas are manifested as sandesha. In other words, sandeha is the outcome of abhivyanjana process. For the transmission of sandesha, there needs to be a sarani (channel or medium). The channels may be natural such as auditory, tactile, visual, olfactory and taste channels. They may be artifactual such as paintings, sculptures, letters, etc. Rasaswadana is the receiving of the message by the receivers, decoding it and finally enjoying the rasa of the sandesha.

Doshas are those noises which distort the message and leads to miscommunication. The model should be interpreted to include all of the noises, such as semantic, mechanical and environmental.

Sandarbha is context and the effectiveness of any message depends on the communication environment. Same message may have different meanings in different contexts.

Pratikriya refers to the responses of the receiver after receiving the message. It is the process of feedback, which allows the receiver to have active role in the communication process.

MODEL B: Shanon and Weaver Model of Communication

Shanon and Weaver model of communication was created in 1948 when Claude Elwood Shannon wrote an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” with Warren Weaver. The concepts in Shanon and Weaver model of communication are:

• Sender: Sender is the person who makes the message, chooses the channel and sends the message.
• Encoder(Transmitter): Encoder is the sender who uses the machine, which converts the message into signals or binary data. It might also directly refer to the machine.
• Channel: Channel is the medium used to send the message.
• Decoder(Receiver): Decoder is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the receiver who translates the message from signals.
• Receiver (Destination): Receiver is the person who gets the message or the place where the message must reach. The receiver provides feedback according to the message.
• Noise: Noise is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc.

For example, brain might be the sender, and our mouth might be the encoder which encodes to a particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and his brain might be the decoder and receiver.

Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in his environment that disturbs them is the noise whereas his response is the feedback. There were only 5 components when the model was made. Noise was added later.

 

Comparative Analysis: Sadharanikaran Model of Communication and Shanon and Weaver Model of Communication

The Shanon and Weaver model is renowned for its simplicity. It deals simply with how communication travels from the transmitter to the receiver worrying only about the concept of noise scrambling the content of the message, regardless of it the meaning is still intact. It is considered by some to be too simple. For example, say the transmitter is speaking in French on a telephone connection that is crystal clear, and his message is received perfectly clear by the receiver, who is unable to speak French. According to Shanon and Weaver, the message can be classed as having been successfully sent, even though the receiver cannot speak French and therefore is unable to get any meaning out of the message.

Sadharanikaran on the other hand is better suited for real world communication.

The first and foremost difference between Sadharanikaran model of communication and Shanon and Weavers model of communication is, the first one is non-linear and the latter one is a linear model of communication. Sadharanikaran model accounts for feedback from the receiver’s side after the reception of the initial message whereas Shanon and Weavers model gives emphasis only to the sender who is actively transmitting messages to passive audiences.  There is no feedback system to allow sender to be adjusted to receiver’s need. Shanon and Weavers model gives emphasis to the sender only whereas Sadharanikaran model says there is not also a thin line between sender and receiver, which is to say, they both are sahridayas who are completely equal to each other.

One of the problem with Shanon and Weavers model of communication is its lack of attention to the context of creating and receiving the message. Meaning can be different in different contexts. There are different situational, social, political, cultural, and historical contexts which can have influence on the interpretation of the message. This is the problem which is not prevalent in Sadharanikaran model of communication. It tells that the effectiveness of any message depends on the communication environment because same message may have different meaning in different contexts. Context is known as ‘sandarbha’ in Sadharanikaran model.

The notion of context in the process of communication makes Hindu concept of communication even more comprehensive. The importance of context is such that due to this factor meaning could be provided to the message even if the sender is not identified to the receiver. In the other words, it is due to context, the intended meaning of any message can be ascertained without determining the actual intention in the mind of the speaker just by taking contextual factors into account. Thus due to context a text can retain its ‘objective’ meaning. (Adhikary, 2010)

Sadharanikaran and Shanon and Weavers communication model consist differing view on the human relationships in the communication process. The people who are engaged in communication in Sadharanikaran model of communication are called sahridayas. They are not only preshakas (senders) and prapakas (receivers), they are sahridayas who have attained a special state called sahridayata. A sahridaya is a person in such a state of emotional intensity which is coequal or parallel to that of other(s) engaged in communication. (Adhikary, 2009, pp.74)

Thus, due to common faith the relationship between parties engaged in communication is harmonious in case of ritual model but in case of SMC sahridayata prevails even in complex hierarchies of castes, languages, cultures and religious practices. (Acharya, 2011)

In the case of Shanon and Weavers model, it is more technological than other linear models and it is more information-centered rather than meaning-centered, but this points to its limitations as a general model of human communication.

Noise and Channel are the common component in both of the models. Both these models agree that the message needs a channel or medium to be transmitted and during the transmission, various factors may interfere with the communication process, distort its meaning or even cause the complete failure of the entire communication process. These factors are called ‘Dosha’ in Sadharanikaran Model and ‘Noise’ in Shanon and Weavers Model.

The goal of Shanon and Weavers model of communication is to send communication messages most effectively with minimum errors. It is a transmission model of communication.

In the context of human communication, the goal of communication in Sadharanikaran model is achieving sharing of Bhavas and achieving mutual understanding. Here, sender and receiver are Sahridayas in true sense. But the goal of communication in the Hindu concept would not be limited to just this extent. Hinduism always emphasizes to achieve all of the purushartha chatustayas, that is, four goals of life: Artha, Kama, Dharma and Moksha. (Adhikary, 2008)

Therefore in conclusion we can see that the Shanon and Weaver model of communication is sufficient if one wishes to take a simplified look at communication and the way it works, but its lack of the necessary extraneous elements of communication make it next to useless in any real world scenario, representing, as they do, over-simplified models of how communication works. And whereas Sadharanikaran model of communication, being strong in every aspect and component it presents, is very useful Eastern model of communication.

References

Acharya, Amol. (2011, August). The Sadharanikaran and Ritual Model of Communication: A Comparative Study. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/6973536/THE_SMC_AND_RITUAL_MODEL_A_COMPARATIVE_STUDY_1_THE_SADHARANIKARAN_MODEL_AND_RITUAL_MODEL_OF_COMMUNICATION_A_COMPARATIVE_STUDY

Adhikary, N.M. (2008). The Sadharanikaran and Aristotle’s Model of Communication: A comparative study: Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(1), 268-285.

Adhikary, N.M. (2009). An Introduction to Sadharanikaran model of Communication: Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3(1), 69-91.

Adhikary, N.M. (2010, January 3). An Introduction to Sadharanikaran Model of Communication. Retrieved from http://sadharanikarantheory.blogspot.com/2010/01/introduction-to-sadharanikaran-model-of.html

 

D. Lawrence Kincaid

Dr. Lawrence Kincaid is a senior advisor at Research and Evaluation Division for the Center of Communication Programs and he is an associate scientist in the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences at John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. He was a Peace Corps volunteer in Columbia and facilitated community development and co-operative organization. He also worked under the directorship of Wilbur Schramm (as a research associate) in the East-West Communication Institute in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Lawrence Kincaid edited a book named Communication Theory: Eastern and Western Perspectives where he has combined both Eastern and Western perspectives and presented a synthesis of both.

There are various chapters in the book, and some of them are:

ASIAN PERSPECTIVES:

1. China

• Communication in The True Story of Ah Q: The True Story of Ah Q is the episodic novella written by Lu Xun of China.
• Political Communication in China: How communication is done politically in China. Chinese political communication in today’s contemporary society is purely propaganda.

2. Korea

• Confucianism in Korea: The teachings of Chinese philosopher Confucius have had profound influence on Korea, especially South Korea. The nation is sometimes referred to as the most Confucian society on Earth. All cultures, Korean, Japanese, and Chinese are influenced with Confucianism, and they are dealing with Confucianism in different ways. However, it is said that Korean traditional values are more firmly entrenched than Japanese or Chinese.
• Impact of Confucianism in Communication: How our confucianist values impacts communication.
• Korean Buddhism: Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what it sees as inconsistencies in Mahayana Buddhism. Early Korean monks believed that the traditions they received from foreign countries were internally inconsistent. To address this, they developed a holistic approach to Buddhism, which has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism which is called, ‘Tongbulgyo’ (interpenetrated Buddhism)
• Impact of Buddhism in Communication: The sutras, which record the teachings of Shakyamuni, are almost in the form of question and answers, the living dialogue through which the Buddha sought to bring hope, comfort and a renewed will to live to the people he encountered.

3. Japan

• Ishin-Denshin: Ishin Denshin is a Japanese idiom which denotes a form of inter-personal communication through unspoken mutual understanding. Ishin-Denshin literally translates as “what the mind thinks, the heart transmits”. Sometimes translated into English as ‘telepathy’, ishin-denshin­ is also commonly referred to as ‘heart-to-heart communication’.
• Indirect communication and its practice in Japan: Usually, there are two types of communication types or ways. They are, Direct Communication and Indirect Communication. Direct Communication means expressing your opinions directly. In direct communication, spoken language is very important. And in Indirect Communication, you need more sensitivity to understand the meaning of what has been said. The use of voice tones and silences has more influence as to what has been said in the spoken language.

Japanese people avoid expressing ‘no’ and they prefer smoother expressions such as ‘I’m really sorry but I am busy right now.’ The word ‘chotto’ means in most cases ‘no’. Way of expressing disagreement. Not totally ‘no’ but definitely not ‘yes’.

They rarely ask what they want directly, but step-by-step. For example,  “It’s hot in this room, isn’t it?” could imply “Can I open the window?” In Japan, the indirect way is the correct way to express opinions.

4. India

• Sadharanikaran: Sadharanikaran, meaning “simplification without dilution”; represents a communication tradition that includes simplification, rasa(emotion), sahridaya(compassion with affection), asymmetry(hierarchy), and social universalization.
• The law of Karma: Karma is a Sanskrit word for action. It is equivalent to Newton’s law of ‘every action must have a reaction’.

PERSPECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION THEORY FROM THE USA

• Acculturation and communication competence: Acculturation is the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group. For example, if we migrate to another country or a place, we start adapting to their culture and traditions. Communication competence is your ability to communicate efficiently or successfully.

• Convergence theory of Communication: Convergence model of communication is the model founded by Dr.Lawrence Kincaid himself. It is a non-linear model of communication, where communicators strive to reach a mutual understanding. He proposed this model in his 1979 East-West Communication Monograph. (Paper No. 18) Convergence theory, simply stated says that the more two people communicate with each other, the more similar their views of the world become. In recent years, Kincaid’s model has been particularly popular among proponents of development communication.

The components of Convergence model of communication are as follows:

1. Encoder/Source/Decoder: The person who originates a message is the source. The encoder and decoder are the same person or source. The second source is also encoder as well as decoder. The source acts as an encoder while sending the message and as decoder while receiving the message.
2. Message: Message is the information sent during the interaction.
3. Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after receiving the first message which is known as feedback.
4. Field of Experience: Field of Experience is the experience and knowledge that the source possesses which affects the message formation and interpretation. For example, Source’s culture, Source’s social behavior.

The examples of this model of communication are: Internet, Human-computer interaction, social media, interactive marketing, user-generated contents, chat rooms, etc.

There are also criticisms of this model of communication. They are:

1. Feedback is not simultaneous and can take a long time.
2. Communication becomes linear if the receiver does not respond.
3. Sender and receiver might not know who the other person is.

Fig: Convergence Model of Communication 

MIMAMSA DARSAN

Mimamsa Darsan is one of the six Hindu Astika philosophies. According to Padiniya Rishi, the general meaning of the word Mimamsa is ‘curiosity’ or ‘inquisitiveness’.

The Vedas have been sub-classified into 4 parts:

Samhita (collection of mantra), Aranakyas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices etc), Brahman (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices) & Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge)

Purva-Mimamsa or Mimamsa Darsan basically studies 1^st three parts of the Veda which are commonly known as Karma-Kanda.

Questions such as ‘Is there a right or wrong way to act?’ ‘What are the means of knowing right act from the wrong act?’ ‘What is good and what is evil?’ etc are studied by a branch of philosophy called Ethics. Thinking from this viewpoint, Purva Mimamsa or Mimamsa Darsan can be known as Vedic Ethics.

Thus, Purva mimamsa or Mimamsa is an enquiry into the nature of Dharma, and it answers ethical and moral questions from the Vedic viewpoint.

Maharshi Jaimini was the promoter (compiler) of Mimamsa Darsan. He was the first creator of Sutras, and then only other Rishi’s started writing Sutras. The history of most philosophical thoughts are connected with the Vedas. Shastri Musalgawkar, a Mimamsa scholar said that the origin of Mimamsa thought can also be traced back to Vedic literature. However, Jaimini’s book, Mimamsa Sutra can be considered as formal origin of Mimamsa Darsan. ‘Mimamsa’ word was also used frequently in Samhitas, Brahman and Upanishads. If we want to understand Mimamsa Darsan deeply, then we would have to read ‘Mimamsa Sutra’, which was compiled by Jaimini. Usually in Mimamsa Shastra, there are three types of books: Sutra Grantha, Adhikaran Grantha and Prakaran Grantha.

Mimamsa Darsan is based on Kalpasutra, which is one of the six Vedanga, which describes about Karma-kanda. When Vedic Karma-kanda were divided into different branches, and people were using it against each other, then Jaimini tried to explain different types of karma and the quality of their differences and tried to explain the actual meaning of Veda by writing Mimamsa Sutra.

People say Mimamsa Darsan is the oldest darsan of all, because Mimamsa darsan talks about Yagya being the most ancient and oldest organization of Indian continent. According to Ganganath Jha, among the philosophies derived from Sutra Sahityas, Mimamsa Darsans path is considered to be the hugest because there are a thousand sutras in Mimamsa Sutra. But different scholars say different facts about Sutras. Some say there are 2652, some say 2742. Mimasa has 12 chapters and 60 Padas. Except main 12 chapters, there are additional 4 chapters named Sankarsha Kanda (or Dewata Kanda), which are not used that much, that’s why people say there are only 12 chapters.

Mimamsa Sutra starts from “अथातो धर्मजिज्ञासा” and ends at “अन्वाहर्ये च दर्शनात”

It is also called ‘Dwadashalakshini’ because Jaimini has discussed about 12 subjects in the book which are, Dharma Jigyasa, Karma-Bhedh, Sheshatwa, Prayoj-Prayojak bhaav, Karmaharuma kram, Adhikaar, Samanya tatha bisesh atidesh, Uha, Baadh, Tantra tatha aawap. The very first chapter’s 1^st Pada is called ‘Tarka Pada’ which is considered to be very important.

The epistemology of Mimamsa Darsan are as follows:

1. Pratakshya: It means perception. There are two types of Prataksya: External and Internal.
2. Anumaan: Anuman is Inference, which means reaching a new conclusion or truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.
3. Upamaan: Upamaan means comparison and analogy.
4. Arthaapatti: Arthaapatti is postulation or derivation from circumstances.
5. Anupalabdhi: This is accepted only by Kumarila Bhatta sub-school of Mimamsa Darsan and it means non-perception, or negative/cognitive proof.
6. Sabda: Sabda is relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.

The metaphysics of Mimamsa Darsan are as follows:

1. Atheism: Mimamsa Darsan tells that there is no need to postulate a maker for the world as there was no need for an author to write Vedas or a God to validate the rituals. The gods have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their name. But technically, purva mimamsa is not a nastik darsan because it follows veda. The reason for them accepting Vedas is that the system of Karma to fulfill a man’s desire.
2. Dharma: It places a great weight on the performance of “karma” or action enjoined by the Vedas. Dharma as understood by Purva Mimamsa can be loosely translated into English as “virtue”, “morality” or “duty”. Mimamsa Darsan tells us that the law of karma was like a law of nature, unconnected to any divine or supernatural agency.

Assignment – #2

Question: Show your acquaintance with the research procedure. Also elaborate: “The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.” Discuss various parts of the research design with suitable examples.

Research procedure is a scientific method of investigation. There are seven steps of research procedure, which are:

1. Finding a problem (Statement of a problem)
2. Review of the Literature (Any matter related to the problem)
3. Hypothesis or Research question
4. Research Design
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Findings (Conclusion, Report writing)

Research Design is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is an overall plan of how the research is going to take place and what components are going to be the part of research. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. It should contain a clear statement of the research problem, procedures and techniques that will be used for gathering information, the population and sample to be studied and methods that will be used for collecting, processing and analyzing data.

The various parts of research design are:

1. Sampling Design: Sampling Design is the research design which deals with the methods of selecting items to be observed for the study. It is obtaining information from a sample of a larger group. There are two types of sampling designs which are,   i. Probability Sampling: The sampling in which every unit in the population has a chance of being selected in the sample is known as probability sampling.                         ii. Non-Probability Sampling: The method in which all units of the population don’t get equal chance of being selected in the sample is known as non-probability sampling.
2. Observational Design: Observational research design is the design which relates to the condition under which the observation is to be created. In this method, the researcher observes the ongoing behavior in the field of data collection. Example: Interviews
3. Statistical Design: Statistical design is the design which concerns the use of various statistical tools for data collection and analysis. Examples are: Charts, Tables, etc.
4. Operational Design: Operational Design involves the actual process of carrying out the research works and includes aspects related to the actual operation of that plan. Example: Budget, Stationary etc.

 

Neha Sharma,

Roll no : 14

BMS IInd Year

 

Methods of Knowing and Science

Q: Show your acquaintance with various methods of knowing. Why science is considered the most trustworthy among those methods? Argue with suitable examples.

There is not only one way of knowing. According to Kerlinger, who summarized the writings of the philosopher Charles Pierce, there are four different methods by which we can determine truth. They are:

1. Tenacity: It is a method which considers something as true because they are considered true since time immemorial. In this method, truth is what is known to the individual or group. It says that knowledge is transferred from tradition or culture. This method follows the logic something is true because it always have been true. Its validity and reliability is unquestionable and there is no chance of verification.
2. Authority: This method says that truth is true because an authority says so. It believes the authority blindly. It also says that the truth is established through a trusted source such as God, tradition, or public sanction. We must not question the authority because what authority says is true. We must not question Why? How? The emphasis is on the source, not on the methods the source may have used to gain the information.
3. Intuition: In this method, truth is true because it is logical. It derives from reasoning but does not bear empirical support. A person assumes that something is true because it is self-evident and stands to reasons. This method follows what authority says but if it is false then it questions the authority. It does not question the authority but others. It is superior than tenacity or authority.
4. Science: Methods of science is more reliable than others mentioned above. There is less chance of errors. It approaches learning as a series of small steps. Scientific approaches are limited to domains where relevant ideas can be quantified and objectively observed. This method also attempts to define a process for defining truth that produces results verifiable by others and is self-correcting.

Science is considered as the most trustworthy method of knowing because it is verifiable, cumulative, logical, systematic, and objective. It researches its evidences in an empirical, cumulative, logical ways rather than being intuitive. It can be repeated again to conform whether it is true or not. This method only accounts for solvable problems that have empirical solutions based on observable events. Therefore, science helps us to know the truth of certain phenomenon. It makes our life easier and reliable. Science is the best and most trustworthy method of knowing or gaining knowledge. Our everyday facts are known to us because of science. Science has always been the integral part of human lives. We have been discovering new things from our childhood. When we touch something hot i.e, fire we feel a sensation in our skin and say ‘Oouch! How hot!’ So next time we are near fire, we become more careful not to touch it. Human beings are full of knowledge. But the knowledge inside us related to tenacity or intuition may not be correct all the time. So we need science to be free of errors and subjectivity. We can check the authenticity of knowledge inside us by using science.

References:

Lecture notes of Research Methodology by Dr.Nirmala Mani Adhikary

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/